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2	Aims of My Research Project Obtain, review & summarize existing information: Scripps Institution of Oceanography archives Published & unpublished literature Evaluate scientific successes & failures Document for historical record: Video & audio participant interviews Photographic archives Assess major reasons for achievements of expedition Leadership, logistics, teamwork
3	Location of Enewetak Atoll
4	History of Enewetak “Colony” of Spain, Germany, Japan, USA Major WW II battle & staging area Atomic testing ground – first H-bomb in 1952 Home of Eniwetok Marine Biological Laboratory (later, Mid Pacific Marine Laboratory) Enewetak people “evacuated,” 1948-1977
5	Expedition Characteristics 23-member, team-driven research 2-month long deployment Strong leadership vision, but adaptive to suggestions of participants Excellent, yet complex logistics in a remote location, using “floating laboratory” Women participated (really unusual then) Very graduate student & postdoc “friendly” Diversified support (NSF, AEC, SIO, Janss Foundation, with logistical support from additional agencies)
6	R/V Alpha Helix
7	Logistics Supplies Long supply routes, but regular flights Communications Shortwave transmission, no Internet! Local transportation Variety of abandoned vehicles and vessels, including an “M” boat Living conditions Primitive for most participants, in abandoned AEC buildings – self service was essential! Meals Two facilities, Alpha Helix galley and shore camp kitchen, “Chez Judy Meyer”
8	Participants
9	Leadership of Symbios
10	Johannes as Chief Scientist Smith: “He had a rare combination of infectious enthusiasm and critical evaluation” Webb: “He was one of the biggest idea men I’ve ever run into” Pomeroy: “He always knew exactly what he wanted to do … very brave and confident” Pilson: “Bob was a wonderful, wonderful person … a remarkably good scientist. I think having the right kind of leader was extraordinary.”
11	Science of Expedition “How do [coral reef communities] function as single metabolic units?” Central theme: measurement of elemental fluxes (O, C, N, P) across reef Quantification of productivity, respiration & calcification “Which organisms are involved in reef community metabolism to a quantitatively significant degree, and how do they influence the flux of N, P and reduced C within the community?” Relating ecosystem function to component parts Other individual research: Focused studies on organisms, physiology, community ecology, etc.
12	Concept of “Flow Respirometry”
13	Study Sites
14	Muti Island
15	Windward Reefs and Islands
16	Transect II from Air
17	Opinions “The Eniwetok expedition was highly successful — a major turning point in coral-reef research. It clearly demonstrated how one could study a reef as a system, not just observing species, but examining energy flows.” Jan Sapp. 1999. What is Natural? Oxford Press “Symbios introduced a new way of thinking about quantitatively assessing ecosystem function.” Robert Halley, USGS, pers. comm.
18	Major Accomplishments Helfrich: “[Understanding] the nutrient dynamics of the exchange across the windward reef, which became the primary focus of the expedition.” Pomeroy: “… the supposedly barren rock of the coral reef was actually coated [with] algae [that had an] extremely important effect even though you couldn’t see them.” Pilson: “…the startling discovery of the increase of N downstream across the reef [and the realization this came from N fixation].”
19	Research Titles in 1971 Report Association of inorganics with dissolved organic matter. Alberts Studies of blood and respiration of Trochus niloticus L. Betzer & Pilson The effect of dissolved nutrient supplements and feeding on calcification in Acropora sp. Crabtree P flux in coral reef organisms. D’Elia N & P flux through a holothurian population. D’Elia & DuPaul Observations on mullet spawning. Helfrich The distribution of fishes across an Eniwetok Reef. Helfrich Photographic survey of a reef transect. Johannes Effect of crude oil on corals exposed to air. Johannes & Maragos Distribution & diversity of corals on transect 2. Kinzie Concentration of photosynthetic pigments in reef corals. Maragos Respirometry studies on benthic algae. Marsh Winkler analysis on the transects. Marsh Algal zonation on the transects. Marsh Particulate & dissolved organic C in an atoll reef environment. Marshall & Telek Metabolism of reef corals. McCloskey P fluxes across reefs at Eniwetok Atoll. Pilson & Betzer Respiratory processes of microorganisms suspended in water. Pomeroy, Alberts & Wiebe Flux of phosphate between water & the reef substratum. Pomeroy, Wiebe & Pilson Effect of various light treatments on calcification rates in Acropora sp. Roth Effect of the addition of nutrients on the variability of calcification rates in a single colony of Pocillopora damicornis. Roth Estimate of carbonate production by some species on Japtan reef. Roth Reef calcification. Smith Computer reduction of Symbios data. Smith Blast hole survey. Smith & Kinzie Reef topographic survey. Smith & Pilson Trace element distribution on Eniwetok atoll. Telek Nitrogen cycle in the marine waters of Eniwetok Atoll. Webb & DuPaul Photosynthesis in invertebrate-algal associations. Wells Metabolism of natural bottom types.Wells Microscopic examination of particular organic matter in the Eniwetok Atoll. Wiebe & Pomeroy Nitrogen fixation on Eniwetok Atoll. Wiebe & Sottile Bacterial studies on Eniwetok Atoll. Wiebe & Sottile
20	Key Findings of Symbios Value of ecosystem-level measurements demonstrated for reefs: Understanding of productivity & respiration Non-Redfield stoichiometry observed for coral reefs Very little net fluxes of P found Demonstration of substantial net N export from reefs Recognition of importance of N₂ fixation on reefs Major role of algal turf in reef primary productivity recognized First good CaCO₃budget published Insight into N cycle (N “cascading” on reef) Coral growth bands are faithful chronometers, with chemical variations in their CaCO₃
21	Legacy of Symbios “LIMER, the Abrolhos work, and the fertilization experiment on the Great Barrier Reef (ENCORE) would not have happened without Symbios ... pre-Symbios, community metabolism “a la Odum” was being largely written off as far fetched, so most community marine metabolism studies post 1970 trace back to Symbios”
22	Reasons for Symbios’ Success Strong conceptual basis and excellent science Excellent leadership and follow-up after expedition ended Wonderful site selected, with existing facilities Remarkable logistical support, e.g. Alpha Helix Well financed by NSF/SIO, AEC and others Flexible science plan, yet good fidelity to original major goals Collaborative, “hang loose” scientific party
23	Other Thoughts More synthetic, ecosystem-level studies using team approach Hypothesis-driven experimentation on large scale Long-term monitoring and baseline information to complement above (BATS & HOT are good models) Introduction and use of new technology to track and understand CO₂ system A continuous science presence in multiple coral reef areas Leaders who are also “people-oriented”
24	Agradecimiento NSF OCE-0500134 to CFD for making this project possible Symbios “alumni,” especially Steve Smith, Susie Betzer, Ken Webb, Bill Wiebe, Phil Helfrich, Michael Pilson, & Larry Pomeroy